IAS 38 Intangible Assets和IFRS 3 Business Combinations均談及了無形資產的確認條件(recognition criteria)。同學們要辨別清楚單體報表上的確認條件,并進一步學習合并報表上的特殊確認規(guī)則。
應對考試時,確實僅靠死記例子,就能做對題目?;\統(tǒng)地以外購、內部形成、收購視作外購的邏輯,來判斷能否確認無形資產,只是歸納現(xiàn)象,而非探尋本質。只有從理論層面進行歸納整理,才能更廣泛地將知識運用于實踐。
廣義上,我們都會稱computer software, patents, copyrights, motion picture films, customer lists, mortgage servicing rights, fishing licences, import quotas, franchises, customer or supplier relationships, customer loyalty, market share and marketing rights為“無形的資源(intangible resources)”。但這離能被確認到資產負債表里作為一項“無形資產”,仍有一定距離。
IAS 38給出的無形資產確認條件,是最基本的參考依據:
The recognition of an item as an intangible asset requires an entity to demonstrate that the item meets:
(1) the definition of an intangible asset (“An intangible asset is an identifiable non-monetary asset without physical substance”); and
(2) the recognition criteria (“(a) it is probable that the expected future economic benefits that are attributable to the asset will flow to the entity; and (b) the cost of the asset can be measured reliably.”).
即一方面要符合無形資產定義(definition)(重點應關注資產定義里的“control(控制)”,和此處提及的“identifiable(可辨認的)”),另一方面要符合額外的確認條件(probable inflow和reliable cost)(這種資本化條件,其實在很多其他與資產相關的準則里也經常出現(xiàn))。
上述“無形的資源”上的支出,一旦無法資本化,則應該費用化(費用化時,相當于計入了internally generated goodwill)。
1. 符合無形資產的定義——control和identifiable
IAS 38明確,廣義上的“無形的資源”,并非都能在狹義上滿足無形資產的“定義”。
Control作為“定義”中的一道門檻,自不必多提,只要是資產都要滿足這個條件。諸如customer relationships or loyalty(若不受法律或合同保護)很難被認為被企業(yè)所控制——客戶的口味說換就換,現(xiàn)有的市場份額未必是未來收益的保障。
無形資產的“定義”中,另一個關鍵門檻是“identifiable”,也是后文歸納時的重要指標。
An asset is identifiable if it either:
(a) is separable, ie is capable of being separated or divided from the entity and sold, transferred, licensed, rented or exchanged, either individually or together with a related contract, identifiable asset or liability, regardless of whether the entity intends to do so; or
(b) arises from contractual or other legal rights, regardless of whether those rights are transferable or separable from the entity or from other rights and obligations.
簡單來說,要滿足identifiable,需要滿足separable(可分離的)或contractual(合同性的)——separable指的是該資產要能夠從企業(yè)中分離出來,被交易走;contractual則指該資產源于合同或其他法定權利。
在FR考試中,同學們遇到的絕大多數(shù)形似無形資產的“無形的資源”,都能夠滿足identifiable的條件,它們或separable(如customer list和brand),或contractual(如licence)。
反例是internally generated goodwill——除非出售企業(yè)的控制權(即涉及后文會談及的企業(yè)合并),否則無法交易走internally generated goodwill,因此個別報表視角下,它not identifiable,自然就無法資本化(此外其實其成本也難以被可靠計量)。
2. 符合無形資產的確認條件——probable inflow和reliable cost
假如通過第1關“無形資產的定義”,那么就要接著考慮第2關“確認條件”——
(a) It is probable that the expected future economic benefits that are attributable to the asset will flow to the entity; and
(b) The cost of the asset can be measured reliably.
“Research costs”和“滿足PIRATE之前的development costs”就倒在(a)probable inflow上——研發(fā)項目八字還沒有一撇,很難說存在很可能流入企業(yè)的經濟利益,因此無法資本化。
Internally generated的其他無形資產,如brand、customer list等,倒在了(b)reliable cost上——在內部形成它們時所發(fā)生的支出,往往難以與企業(yè)整體業(yè)務的開發(fā)成本(cost of developing the business as a whole)相區(qū)分(distinguish),因此它們被視作無法可靠計量成本。但若這些資產來自于外購(acquired),則成本被視作能夠可靠計量,可以確認為無形資產。
“滿足PIRATE之后的development costs”就可以通過這兩個確認條件,資本化為無形資產。